chapter one

The Manuscripts of Qumran Cave 4

Writing Materials

Of all of the caves and sites excavate around the Qumran area, Cave 4 has yielded the greatest bulk and variety of manuscripts. The manuscripts and portions of manuscripts found in Cave 4 have been called the "remains of the central library of the Qumran community."1 These consist of "about 15,000 fragments which come from about 550 different manuscripts."2 This paper will examine these fragments according to various classification schemes in order to gain an understanding of the people that formed the collection from their "library." Because of the amount of the material, it will necessarily confine its scope to the biblical manuscripts.

In modern libraries there is a wide variety of materials on which information is presented. Most modern libraries have print materials, microform materials (in all of its iterations), computer software, materials on CD-ROMS, video tapes, audio tapes and many other formats and physical and electronic forms in which information is stored and presented. The variety and mix of these materials is an indicator of the scope of the interest of the library and of its technological state. So too with the library at Qumran. The caves of the Qumran area yielded writings that were found on several

different writing materials and surfaces. These include primarily parchment, papyrus, and ostracon (pottery fragment). By far the greatest number of items was found to have been written on parchment with only a few found on papyrus. This is an indication of two possibilities, neither of which excludes the other. Papyrus, by its nature, even in an ideal climate, has a short shelf life, it disintegrates readily.3 Also, the use of parchment is an indicator of the value that a community placed on the documents that were produced on that material. Parchment, made from the skins of animals, while more durable, was also a more costly material to use. If improperly stored, however, both materials are subject to disintegration. On the condition of the Cave 4 fragments, Frank Cross comments that

Unlike the several scrolls of Caves I and XI which are preserved in good condition, with only minor lacunae, the manuscripts of Cave IV are in an advanced state of decay. Many fragments are so brittle or friable that they can scarcely be touched with a camel's-hair brush. Most are warped, crinkled, or shrunken, crusted with soil chemicals, blackened by moisture and age.4

Among the Cave 4 biblical manuscripts, only three are made from papyrus, 4QpapIsaP, 4QpapLXXLevb, and 4QpapParaExod. The rest of the biblical manuscripts are found on the more expensive and durable parchment.

According to Martínez's inventory, there are 159 manuscripts from Cave 4 that are passages from biblical text. Each of these manuscripts have been found in various states of preservation. It has been determined that many separate fragments may have been identified as belonging to the same manuscript. With few exceptions (1QIsaa is the best example), the manuscripts are not whole but rather in a very fragmentary state. Appendix C shows an example of a single manuscript (4QGen-Exoda) that is in several pieces.

Scripts and Languages5

The Hebrew Bible was written in Hebrew and in Aramaic. The bulk of the text is in Hebrew, but there are major passages in Aramaic, notably Daniel 2.4b-7.28, Ezra 4.8-6.18, and a single passage in Jeremiah 10.11. Both languages are of Northwest Semitic origins and therefore cognate. Though they are cognate, the two languages are distinctive in their vocabulary, grammar, and, originally, script. Prior to the exile of the nations of Israel (722 BCE) and Judah (586 BCE)6, Hebrew was written in a script very similar to the old Phoenician script called paleo-Hebrew. After the return from exile, the Jews adopted the more aesthetic square Aramaic script that is in use today. The difference is very readily seen in the way the Tetragrammaton7 (YHVH or HVHY written right to left) is written. In the more archaic paleo-Hebrew it is written hwhy and in the more modern square Aramaic script is written hwhy. Though the majority of the texts are written in the more modern Aramaic script, this distinction is worth noting because there are examples of documents written in paleo-Hebrew in the Cave 4 manuscripts. These are, 4QpaleoGen-Exodl, 4QpaleoExodm, 4QpaleoGenm, 4QpaleoDeutr, 4QpaleoDeuts, 4QpaleoJobc, 4QpaleoParaJosh, 4QpaleoUnid[1], 4QpaleoUnid[2]. These manuscripts are written entirely in paleo-Hebrew. Additionally, there are other documents that, though written using the Aramaic script, use paleo-Hebrew when writing the Tetragramaton. Apart from the fact that we see evidence of individual scribes who were still familiar with the paleo-Hebrew script, it needs to be asked, why was it used when so much else was written in the Aramaic script? Cross states that he believes the "Paleo-Hebrew . . . was revived or became resurgent in the Maccabean era of nationalistic archaism."8 Was it only for nationalistic reasons or was there some theological or other reason?

Besides a diversity of textual scripts, some of the manuscripts of Cave 4 were written in the Greek language. These include 4QLxxLeva, 4QpapLXXLevb, 4QLxxDeut, 4QUnidgr. After the exile of the Jews in 586 BCE, and the later conquest of Alexander the Great over the Middle East, many of the Jews settled in the city of Alexandria in Egypt. Because it was a Greek city and because Greek was the ligua-franca of the time and area, many of the Jews of the Diaspora lost the knowledge of Hebrew and had become rather Greek speakers, readers, and writers. According to the letter of Aristeas, at about 250 BCE, the Graeco-Egyptian pharaoh Philadelphus (285-247 BCE) sent for 72 rabbis to translate the Hebrew scriptures into the Greek language.9 The work that came out of the project was the Septuagint (usually rendered LXX, for the 70 [72] rabbis) and it has served as an important text for the study of the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is the LXX that serves as the version of the Old Testament that the bulk of the quotations of the Old Testament in the New Testament derive. Though the Jews have been using Greek since the time of Alexander the Great and that a great deal of their writing is either originally in Greek or Greek translations of Semitic works, it is a curiosity that Greek language documents have been found with Paleo-Hebrew documents. On the surface, the two languages point in two different directions, one to a more modern, secular future, the other to a more archaic, sectarian past.

Biblical Texts Breakdown10

The biblical texts found in Cave 4 may be divided by the three main divisions recognized in the Hebrew bible; the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nebiaim), and the Writings (Kethubiim).11 The manuscripts may be divided like this:

There is another division that may be considered part of the biblical section, that of the fragments of phylacteries and mezuzah that were found.13 Though they are biblical passages, they are very specific ones that had a very specific purpose and so are best classified and considered separately. The phylacteries and mezuzah comprise manuscripts 4Q128 through 4Q155 or 27 items.

Within the first division of the biblical texts, the Law (Torah), the inventory of the manuscripts falls out like this:

To help understand this group of the books a brief description of each book may be in order. Genesis is the first book of the Hebrew bible and covers the history of the creation of the "heavens and the earth" to the time of the entrance of the Jewish patriarch Jacob and his twelve sons and their families into the land of Egypt, usually dated about 2000 BCE. It contains the account of YHVH's dealings with man, in particular with the man Abraham and his descendants. Exodus contains the account of Moses leading the children of Israel out of the Egyptian bondage. It recounts the story of the first Passover and the giving of the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai. Leviticus picks up at Sinai and gives more details of the covenant and the building of the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant. Numbers gives the account of the forty years of wanderings in the desert prior to the entrance to the promised land. It begins with a census (thus its name) of the men who left Egypt and ends with a census of their children, forty years later. Deuteronomy is a recounting of the history of the leaving of Egypt, the covenant at Sinai, and the forty years of wandering. It is given to the children of those who left Egypt because all of them were by then dead, except Moses (who will die before they enter the promised land), and Caleb and Joshua. It is a recounting of the Law and the Covenant that YHVH made with the children of Israel. It is a reminder to those about to enter the promised land of the covenant they made with YHVH to ensure peace and prosperity. Deuteronomy also contains the command to remember and recount the history and the Law to themselves and to their children (chapter 6). It also contains the commandment for the king, when they get one, to write out for himself a copy of the Law so that he "may learn to fear YHVH his God, by carefully observing all the words of the law and these statutes. . . (chapter 17.18-20)."

Though we are talking of fragments of manuscripts, it may be inferred that we have a good idea of the ratio of one manuscript to the other. It can be seen, then, that the most important texts in this collection are the books of Genesis and Deuteronomy. There are more than twice as many extant copies for fragments from these two books than the other three combined.

The next division of texts in the Hebrew bible is the Prophets (Neviaim). It contains books that in English translation bibles are considered historical books. It also contains the books that are traditionally thought of as prophetic books. In the Hebrew Bible these two groups are considered together. Their break down in Cave 4 looks like this:

Joshua (4Q47-4Q48) 2 manuscripts

    Isaiah (4Q55-4Q69b) 16 manuscripts
    Jeremiah (4Q70-4Q72) 5 manuscripts
    Lamentations (4Q111) 1 manuscript
    Ezekiel (4Q73-4Q75) 3 manuscripts
    Daniel (4Q112-4Q116) 5 manuscripts
    Ezra -Nehemiah (4Q117) 1 manuscript
    Esther 0 manuscripts
    Job (4Q99-4Q101) 3 manuscripts

This breakdown reveals some interesting things. There was found no copy of the book of Esther, which deals with the Jews in exile in Persia between 483 and 473 BCE. Esther is noted for the fact that it is the only book in the Bible that the name of God is not found nor is the Hebrew word for God found (aEl or aElohim). Also noteworthy is the number of the manuscripts of Isaiah in relationship to the other books found in this section. Isaiah (16 manuscripts) is followed by The Twelve (7 manuscripts)16, Jeremiah (5 manuscripts) and Daniel (5 manuscripts).

The third group of texts are the Writings (Kethuviim). This group includes the Psalms, a book of poetry; Proverbs, writings on the conduct of life; Canticles, a love poem; and Qohelet, a book on philosophy and living. The break down of the manuscripts is as follows:

    Proverbs (4Q102-4Q103) 2 manuscripts

    As can be seen, Psalms is by far the largest group of manuscripts extant among the Writings and among the total inventory of Biblical manuscripts.

    The total inventory of the Biblical texts falls out like this:

    Psalms (4Q83-4Q122) 22 manuscripts

    Deuteronomy (4Q28-4Q46) 19 manuscripts

    Genesis (4Q1-4Q12) 16 manuscripts

        Isaiah (4Q55-4Q69b) 16 manuscripts
        Exodus (4Q13-4Q22) 9 manuscripts
        12 Minor Pro. (4Q76-4Q82) 7 manuscripts
        Leviticus (4Q23-4Q26b) 6 manuscripts
        Jeremiah (4Q70-4Q72) 5 manuscripts
        Daniel (4Q112-4Q116) 5 manuscripts
        Samuel (4Q51-4Q53) 3 manuscripts
        Job (4Q99-4Q101) 3 manuscripts
        Ezekiel (4Q73-4Q75) 3 manuscripts
        Canticles (4Q106-4Q108) 3 manuscripts
        Joshua (4Q47-4Q48) 2 manuscripts
        Judges (4Q49-4Q50) 2 manuscripts
        Ruth (4Q104-4Q105) 2 manuscripts
        Proverbs (4Q102-4Q103) 2 manuscripts
        Qohelet (4Q109-4Q110) 2 manuscripts.
        Kings (4Q54) 1 manuscript
        Chronicles (4Q118) 1 manuscript
        Lamentations (4Q111) 1 manuscript
        Ezra -Nehemiah (4Q117) 1 manuscript
        Numbers (4Q27) 1 manuscript
        Esther 0 manuscripts

      Much will be gained by looking at the materials that are found in a collection to determine what was important to a library's originating or funding agency. Those materials where there is a greater number extant normally shows that there is where the greater interest and concern lies. By evaluating the manuscripts found in cave 4 (the Library of Qumran) we will gain insight into the thinking and concerns of the organization that put that collection together.

      It is not suprising that the greatest number of manuscripts are from the Psalms. This is to be expected from any Jewish settlement. The Psalms for the Jews of this time (and today for that matter) were the songs of worship. The Psalter was the hymn book of the Jews then and today. They provided songs for both corporate and individual worship and it would be surprising if this was not the largest part of the collection. But they provided more that songs for worship, the Psalms provide a great deal of theology.

      The theology of the Psalms is a major field of study that can only be touched on in this paper. Suffice it to note that the Psalms contain a great deal of information about a coming, conquering king. This may be found in the Royal or Messianic Psalms. This includes Psalms 2, 18, 21, 72, 89, 110, and 144. In these Psalms "God is proclaimed king, not only of Israel but also of the cosmos. A close connection may be observed between the proclamation of God as king and military victory. God wins victory for his people in battle, and they respond by praising him as their king."19 Though used primarily for worship, the Psalms also served to inform the Jews of the might and power of God and that he could be trusted to provide victory. As will be shown later, this was a great concern at the time of the founding of the Qumran community and at its end.

      There are almost as many copies of the book of Deuteronomy as the Psalms. Deuteronomy, as mentioned above, is a restating of the Law and the delineation of the worship of the Jews, especially worship associated with the Temple. The fact that so many manuscripts were collected of this book indicates that the community was fervent in its persuit of the proper worship of God. It is a detailed book with very specific commands and guidelines and would serve well as a textbook for anyone concerned with the right worship of God and who may have been concerned to determine who was not following the proper guidelines.

      The next two books that were collected in the greatest number were Genesis and Isaiah. Genesis contains the account of the creation, particularly of man, and the history of the patriarchs. Its inclusion is not suprising for any Jewish community because it informs their origins and culture. The fact that there are as many copies of Isaiah as there are of Genesis is informative. Isaiah is the book that speaks of the wonder and majesty of God (especially in chapter six) and speaks of the coming of a time of peace and righteousness, and justice. Dillard notes that

      Many regard Isaiah as the theologian of the Old Testament. His description of God and the divine atttributes and acts in history, are both profound and beautiful. Yet Isaiah is not a theologian of the abstract; he applies his apprehension of God's nature and purpose to the practical issues confronting Israel.20

      The later part of the book of Isaiah is marked by the themes of God as the Savior and Redeemer and the idea of a faithful remnant. The inclusion of so many copies of this book would seem to indicate a community interested in the power and majesty of God, his future promise of help and restoration, and the recognition by God of a faithful few who would hold to the truths as revealed in scripture.

      With this evaluation in mind, this paper will next consider a theory that attempts to identify the occupiers of the site of Khirbet Qumran.

      1 Martínez, xlii.

      2 Ibid.

      3 Bill Katz, Dahl's History of the Book, 3rd. ed. (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1995), 15.

      4 Frank Moore Cross, Jr., The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Biblical Studies (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1958), 26. Appendix C shows the fragmentary condition of one of the manuscripts.

      5 The texts found at the Qumran caves exhibit much more useful information than that which is covered in this short treatise, as in the case of orthography and syntax to name two. Suffice it to say that this is noted, but, for the purposes of this paper, only the language and script will be dealt with.

      6 The northern kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrian King Shalmaneser V in 722 BCE. Judah, the southern kingdom, fell to the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar in 587/586 BCE. Paul R. House, The New American Commentary, vol. 8; 1, 2 Kings (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1995), 339, 397.

      7 The proper name of the God of Israel is depicted by these four letters, which are transliterations of four Hebrew letters, all of which are consonants, known at the Tetragrammaton. It is usually vocalized to give us the familiar Jehovah.

      8 Cross, 127-128.

      9 Alfred Rahlfs, ed. Septuaginta (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1979), lvi.

      10 The manuscripts and pieces of manuscripts will be evaluated as representative of the whole document. There will be no attempt to identify specific portions of texts nor to draw conclusions about the collection on what portion of a manuscript or text was preserved. It will be assumed that the entire text was stored and the evaluation will be from that standpoint.

      11 A contemporary author who divided the Hebrew Bible books as this was Josephus, the first century Jewish historian. He stated that "We have but only twenty-two books, which contain the records of all the past times; which are justly believed to be divine; and of them five belong to Moses, which contain his laws and the traditions of the origin of mankind till his death (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy). This interval of time was little short of three thousand years; but as to the time from the death of Moses till the reign of Artaxerxes king of Persia, who reigned after Xerxes, the prophets, who were after Moses, wrote down what was done in their times in thirteen books (Joshua, Judges-Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Isaiah, Jeremiah-Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, the Twelve minor prophets). The remaining four books contain hymns to God, and precepts for the conduct of human life (Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon)." Contra Apion, 29-31.

      12 At first glance it doesn't look like the numbers add up but a look at the inventory of the texts in the appendix will show that some of the documents have two or three versions or copies; 4Q26, 4Q26a, 4Q26b, for instance.

      13 From Greek fulakthvrion (fulakthvrion) meaning "safeguard, means of protection, or amulet." Joseph Henry Thayer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House), 659. It was a leather box that contained a single piece of parchment with four passages of scripture written on it; Exodus 13.1-10, 13.11-16, Deuteronomy 6.4-9 and 11.13-21. One box was worn on the left arm and another was worn on the head, between the eyes. These were worn in literal obedience of the injunction found in Exodus 13.9-16, Deuteronomy 6.8 and 11.18 where the children of Israel were commanded to "bind [the words of the Law] as a sign on your hand and they shall be as frontals on your forehead. And you shall write them on the door posts of your house and on your gates." This last command is the source of the mezuzah, a passage stored in a box and attached to door posts. Both items are used today.

      14 The original cataloguers of the cave materials ordered the books as they are found in modern editions of the Hebrew bible where Chronicles is considered to be grouped with the last group, the Writings. I have chosen to follow Josephus' lead in numbering Chronicles with the Prophets as Josephus was more contemporaneous with the Qumran community than the later communities that put Chronicles with the third division. The same thing will occur with the book of Daniel. Josephus is backed up by Jesus in putting Daniel with the prophets, as may be seen in Matthew 24.15.

      15 This grouping includes Hosea, Joel Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malichi. Due to the small size of most of these works, they were usually numbered together and are normally found in a single scroll in ancient times.

      16 There are fragments for each of the Twelve Prophets with the exception of Habakkuk. The way the Twelve were packaged would indicate that Habakkuk was included but that portion did not survive.

      17 Song of Solomon in English translation Bibles.

      18 Ecclesiastes in English translation Bibles.

      19 Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper Longman III, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994), 224.

      20 Ibid., 276.